What is sportswear in fashion category?

Clothing worn for sport or physical exercise

This article is about clothing for sports. For fashionable clothing identified and marketed as 'sportswear', see Sportswear (fashion)

U.S. Navy sailors exercising in the presence of a fitness instructor. All of them are wearing sportswear appropriate for doing exercise. 100 m race record holder Usain Bolt (in yellow) and other runners in sportswear.

Sportswear or activewear is clothing, including footwear, worn for sport or physical exercise. Sport-specific clothing is worn for most sports and physical exercise, for practical, comfort or safety reasons.

Typical sport-specific garments include tracksuits, shorts, T-shirts and polo shirts. Specialized garments include swimsuits (for swimming), wet suits (for diving or surfing), ski suits (for skiing) and leotards (for gymnastics). Sports footwear include trainers, football boots, riding boots, and ice skates. Sportswear also includes bikini and some crop tops. Sportswear is also at times worn as casual fashion clothing.

For most sports the athletes wear a combination of different items of clothing, e.g. sport shoes, pants and shirts. In some sports, protective gear may need to be worn, such as helmets or American football body armour. Especially in team sports which involved blocking, intercepting, or pursuing small, hard projectiles such as cricket, baseball, and hockey (where balls or pucks are struck to speeds in excess of 100 miles per hour (45 m/s)) jockstraps (or jillstraps) are standard equipment at higher levels of play. Other undergarments, such as the sports bra, furnish a mixture of protection and comfort. Some protective or supportive orthotics resemble and function as undergarments (especially flexible harnesses and braces); though intended to be worn for sports, these are not generally conceived of as sportswear per se.

Sports fabrics are technical materials which help to keep the wearer comfortable during exercise. The type of fabric required will depend upon the intensity of the exercise and the activity. Yoga clothing should use fabrics with exceptional stretch ability for easy movement which will likely require the fabric to be of a knitted construction. Apparel for long-distance running will keep the wearer in good comfort if it has excellent moisture wicking properties to enable sweat to transfer from the inside to the outside for the garment. Performance clothing for outdoor sports in the winter or snow sports should use breathable fabrics with very good insulating properties.

In wealthy and rising economies, sportswear is a major consumption category in the personal health, luxury goods and leisure space, associated with aggressive media presence and marketing strategies of global scope, often centered around endorsements from celebrity athletes. At the very highest levels of performance, the durability requirement of a costly and technically advanced item of sportswear can be as short as a single competitive event. At lower levels of competition and participation, there are many possible trade-offs between form, function, aesthetics (fashion), performance style, durability and cost. This has led to an almost bewildering array of product offerings, especially where the collision between all these variables is most intense, in particular footwear (most especially runners and court shoes), with seasonal issues, tweaks, and respins from all the major brands, elevated to the level of iconic symbols in some cultural subgroups.

Functional considerations

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Male football players of opposite teams wearing different colour outfits, while the referee is in white T-shirt. Sports uniform may not always be standardized. While generally female players of indoor volleyball wear T-shirt and shorts, in this image taken during 2004 Athens Olympics, the Greek team is wearing leotards.

Sportswear is typically designed to be lightweight so as not to encumber the wearer. The best athletic wear for some forms of exercise, for example cycling, should not create drag or be too bulky.

On the other hand, sportswear should be loose enough so as not to restrict movement. Some sports have specific style requirements, for example the keikogi used in karate. Various physically dangerous sports require protective gear, e.g. for fencing, American football, or ice hockey.

Standardized sportswear may also function as a uniform. In team sports the opposing sides are usually identified by the colors of their clothing, while individual team members can be recognized by a back number on a shirt.

In some sports, specific items of clothing are worn to differentiate roles within a team. For example, in volleyball, the libero (a specialist in defensive play) wears a different colour to that of their teammates. In sports such as soccer and GAA codes, a contrasting colour or pattern is worn by the goalkeeper. In other sports, clothing may indicate the current status or past achievements of a participant. In cycling disciplines, the rainbow jersey indicates the current world champion, and in major road cycling races, jerseys of particular colours are worn by the race leader and leaders of auxiliary classifications.

Spandex is the preferred material for form-fitting sportswear, such as used in wrestling, track & field, dance, gymnastics, speed skating, and swimming.

Sportswear is commonly used as a means for the promotion of sponsors of a sportsperson or team. In some sports, there are regulations limiting the size or design of sponsorship brand names and logos on items of clothing.

Thermal properties

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Sportswear design must consider the thermal insulation needs of the wearer. In hot situations, sportswear should allow the wearer to stay cool; while in cold situations, sportswear should help the wearer to stay warm.

Sportswear should also be able to transfer sweat away from the skin, using, for example, moisture transferring fabric. Spandex is a popular material used as base layers to soak up sweat. For example, in activities such as skiing and mountain climbing this is achieved by using layering: moisture transferring (wicking) materials are worn next to the skin, followed by an insulating layer, and then wind and water resistant shell garments.

Moisture-wicking fabrics

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Moisture transferring fabric

The moisture-wicking fabrics are a class of hi-tech fabrics that provide moisture control for an athlete's skin. They move perspiration away from the body to the fabric's outer surface where it can evaporate. These fabrics typically are soft, lightweight, and stretchy—in other words, they are well suited for making activewear. Moisture-wicking means that the fabric is absorbent and this can leave a barrier of wet fabric on your skin.[citation needed][dubious – discuss] Drywicking is the newest variation of moisture wicking. It is a smart two tier fabric that breaks the surface tension of sweat[clarification needed] and propels it through the hydrophobic layer into a natural wicking outer layer like cotton where it is assisted by evaporative cooling leaving your skin absolutely dry.[dubious – discuss] Besides the fact that your body can perform better,[clarification needed] it will chemically free prevent odors because a bacteria microclimate cannot grow on dry skin.[clarification needed] This broad category of fabrics is used to make garments like T-shirts, sports bras, running and cycling jerseys, socks, tracksuits, and polo-style shirts for any physical activity where the goal is to keep your skin as cool and dry as possible. Moisture-wicking fabrics are used to make apparel for outdoor activities such as hiking, fishing, mountain biking, snow skiing, and mountain climbing. Due to the popularity of garments made from these fabrics, more variations are being introduced to the market.[citation needed]

Protective wear

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Sportswear also includes the variety of protective gear required for contact sports such as lacrosse, boxing and ice hockey. Different types of protective equipment are needed depending on the type of sport and position. The types of gears include the following: headgear, gum shields, shin pads, shoulder pads, and joint supports and protective gloves.

Headgear

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Sachin Tendulkar wearing pads to protect his legs. Both he and the short leg fielder wear cricket helmets for protection.

Headgear is required for most sports with high risk of head injuries such as American football, bobsledding and cycling. Injuries related to the head have the potential to cause serious damage to the spine and may be life-threatening.[1] Although sports like rugby and boxing do not require participants to wear head protection, trainers or referees may choose to depending on the player's history of head related injuries.[1] Certain positions of some sports may require different type of protections. For example, goaltenders for ice hockey wear different types of face masks compared to other positions.[2] They also have thick gloves with arm pads and shin guards to protect them from the high impact of pucks. In baseball, catchers and batters wear headgear for protection against the high velocity pitches. Headgear of different kinds must meet the standards of protection set by various organizations. Helmets for American football must be regulated by the National Football League or the National Collegiate Athletics Association. Although new rules of safe play have been in effect, players are still in danger of brain damage due to repeated blows to the head.[1] Football players are more likely to develop brain related disorders during or after their careers compared to other sports.[3]

Eye and face shields

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Field hockey players wearing protective goggles and mouthguard

Sports of all types may require eye or face protection depending on the players' need. Face masks come in different forms for different types of sports. In lacrosse and American football, the masks are metal rods attached to the helmet to cover the face.[2] While optional, face masks that might be seen in basketball or rugby are plastic masks that are usually molded to fit the players' face.[4] Such masks are worn to minimize additional damage to an already injured part of the face.

Eye protection is an additional support provided by sports goggles. Goggles may be worn in lieu of glasses or contacts. Goggles are reliable in the fact that they do not move around while the player is in motion and they protect the eye from foreign objects.[5] For swimmers and divers, goggles keep the water away from their eyes, thus improving visibility.

Mouth guards

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Mouth guards are used in many sports including but not limited to: rugby, lacrosse, boxing, water polo, ice hockey, American football, basketball, field hockey, and various martial arts.[6] Mouth guards reduce the risk of sport related dental injuries. Contact or some team sports have a risk of causing injuries related with the mouth, jaw, teeth and oral soft tissues. Wearing mouth guards may be recommended to sports players in some sports.[6]

Golf attire

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Golfer Tiger Woods in traditional men's attire

Golf has a long tradition of specialized attire—attire that reflects the tradition of Scottish aristocrats taking in fresh air while walking around the golf course, swinging their golf clubs, and exercising in a refined, genteel sort of way.[citation needed] Golf attire though, is also being influenced by modern fabrics and trends that stress function and durability. Golfers, like athletes in other sports, are athletes first, and public figures second. Athletes in all sports are showing a preference for moisture-wicking fabrics, crisp details, and modern fashionable colors.

Snow gear and ski apparel

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Professional USA ski racer Lindsey Vonn dressed for a race.

Different types of attire are needed for extreme weather conditions like snow. Thicker coats or jackets, gloves and boots are necessities in the cold. Winter sports such as snowboarding and skiing require the riders and skiers to be properly geared in the snow. Snow jackets differ from casual coats such that they may be packed with extra insulation and thicker coating materials. The insulation is usually made with down, which is the layer of fine feathers from geese or ducks.[7] These feathers are naturally insulated to keep the birds warm in the harsh winter weathers. The feathers trap air inside and keep the body heat from flowing out. Down is also considered to be the highest quality of insulation for jackets. It is light and compressible. Alternative types of insulation are being invented including: synthetic microfibers and polyester-based insulation.[7] These materials perform as well as down if not better and are becoming popular in the markets with the help of major brands using such materials for their equipment.

Winter gear must also be flexible so that it may offer a wide range of movement. An ideal jacket would have enough insulation to be warm but light, it should be made with material that are not restricting.[8] Jackets with down will be light and warm but they tend to be more expensive. Also down jackets usually are not water-resistant. Synthetic insulated jackets, however, are water-resistant and cheaper than down but lose their insulating factors and are heavier.[8]

Sales trends for activewear

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A woman wearing sports bra and boyshorts, which were conventionally women's sportswear but are now also worn as casuals or athleisure by women in the West.

As activewear becomes more fashionable and more popular with consumers, sales have increased. Activewear market was valued at $351,164 million in 2017, and is projected to hit $546,802 million by 2024, at a CAGR of 6.5% from 2018 to 2024. North America dominated the global activewear market in 2017, accounting for 42.3% of the total revenue.[9]

Some analysts attribute the growth in sales to an intrinsic change in the way activewear is designed. “Historically, what had been available to women were items based on a men's item that were just made smaller and turned a flattering color like pink,” said Scott Key, senior vice president and general manager of Athleta. “Women athletes expected more.” [10] Designers have recognized this "crossover" between exercise and fashion as a major opportunity for growth. It also synchronises with anoverall trend in American fashion towards a more casual style of dress.[citation needed] The trend has been so popular that it has spawned a new category of casual clothing, athleisure.

Gender difference

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Tennis player Maria Sharapova in different types of women's clothing- miniskirt (left), minidress (centre) and shorts (right).

In sports like tennis, while men generally wear shorts (along with T-shirt or sleeveless shirt), in case of women there is an option of wearing miniskirt, skort or shorts (along with top), as well as minidress (which is a single clothing combining miniskirt and top).

See also

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References

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• Sports clothing at Wikimedia Commons

Riding attire, circa 1910

At the beginning of the twenty-first century, "sportswear" describes a broad category of fashion-oriented comfortable attire based loosely on clothing developed for participation in sports. "Active sportswear" is the term used to cover the clothing worn specifically for sport and exercise activities. Now generally accepted as the most American of all categories of dress, sportswear has become, from the second half of the twentieth century, the clothing of the world. It consists of separate pieces that may be "mixed and matched," a merchandising term meaning that articles of clothing are designed to be coordinated in different combinations: trousers or shorts or skirts with shirts (either woven or knit, with or without collars, long-sleeved or short) and sweaters (either pullovers or cardigans) or jackets of a variety of sorts.

Pre-Twentieth Century Sportswear

The origins of sportswear, so intimately tied to the rise of sports, are complex, arising from pervasive social change and cultural developments in the mid-nineteenth century. Previously, sport had been the domain of the landed well-to-do, revolving mostly around horses, shooting, and the hunt. Clothing generally was modified fashion wear, but distinctions between the clothing of the country and of town had appeared as early as the eighteenth century. Men, especially young men, wore the new collared, sometimes double-breasted, skirtless but tailed frock for shooting or country wear, itself probably adapted from the military uniform of the early eighteenth century. This coat was quickly adopted into fashionable dress for young gentlemen. Fox or stag hunting called for skirted coats and high boots to protect the legs, and for trim tailoring that would not hamper the rider maneuvering rough terrain and the new fences that were an outcome of the British Enclosure Acts (1760-1840). These acts, by transferring common grazing lands to private holdings, resulted in fences never needed before, thereby adding new challenges to cross-country riding and revolutionizing the sport of hunting.

Riding Attire

The long, straight, narrow, severely tailored riding coats that emerged toward the end of eighteenth-century England traveled to France as the redingote, to become a high-fashion garment for both men and women for the next several decades, through the 1820s. Eventually, red coats became the acceptable color for the hunt, possibly for the obvious reason of making the riders more easily visible. As early as the eighteenth-century, women also adopted severely tailored riding coats based directly on men's styles, creating a standard that still characterizes women's sportswear in the early twenty-first century. Americans, both men and women, followed the English lead in sporting activity. These upper-class choices set the tone and provided the models for the future, but it took democratization to affect change overall. That came with the industrial revolution and the rise of leisure activity among even the poorer classes.

Urban Sports and Games

With the movement of the population away from its agrarian past into the cities, reformers realized that the working classes had no real outlets other than drinking for what little leisure time they had. In an era of revivalist fervor that preached temperance, the concerned middle classes sought other, safer avenues of activity for the poorer classes. Both active and spectator sport and games helped fill that gap. European immigrants to the United States, particularly those from Germany and the Scandinavian countries, brought a variety of outdoor sports and games for men with them, and an accompanying culture of health and exercise that they nurtured in their private clubs. Clothing for these activities was more relaxed than the street clothes of the time, and consisted often of a shirt and trouser combination. Native-born Americans also had had a long history of team games, early versions of various ball games that continued to be played once the population moved to the cities. However, it was baseball, with its singular attire, that most influenced men's clothing for sport. Baseball had emerged as a popular team game with new rules after the first meeting of the elite New York Knickerbocker Baseball Club with the New York Nines at Elysian Fields in Hoboken, New Jersey, on 19 June 1846. By the 1850s, many other more democratic clubs of workers played the game as well, quickly turning it into America's favorite sport. In 1868, the Cincinnati Redstockings were the first major team to adopt a uniform of bloused shirt, baggy knee breeches, and sturdy knee socks. The unusual pants, so different from the long stove-pipe trousers of the time, were named after Washington Irving's seventeenth-century character, Dietrich Knickerbocker-not coincidentally the same surname the first baseball team in America had adopted as its own. These became the accepted trouser for active sports in general, and were dubbed "knickerbockers" after the original team. Knickerbockers's success may be seen in their appearance for the next century for shooting, bicycling, hiking, and golf. By the 1920s, they were even worn by women.

Football uniforms, circa 1910

Active sports uniforms and clothing grew out of necessity. Players needed protection from bodily harm in contact sports like football and hockey; they also needed to let the body breathe and enable it to move as easily and freely as possible while performing the sport. The entire history of active sports clothing is tied to higher education, the increasingly rapid developments in textile technology, and the Olympics. For example, football, a new and favorite game in men's colleges in the late nineteenth century, adopted a padded leather knickerbocker, pairing it with another innovation, the knitted wool jersey pullover. Lightweight wool jersey, an English invention of the 1880s, was perfect for men's sporting pullovers (which soon were referred to as "jerseys"). Perhaps the most enduring of these has been the rugby shirt-striped, collared, and ubiquitous. It had its beginnings as the uniform for the "new" nineteenth-century game begun at the venerable British school, Rugby, but proved so enduring that it is still worn in the early 2000s, by men, women and children who never thought of playing the game. Jersey was equally adopted into women's dress for sport as well. The new lawn tennis of the 1870s was ripe for a flexible fabric that allowed greater movement, and jersey filled that need by the 1880s. In that same decade, students in the new women's colleges left behind their corsets, petticoats, and bustles for simpler gathered dirndl-style skirts and jersey tops taken directly from men's styles in order to participate in sports like crew and baseball. At the same time, men's schools added a heavier outer layer of wool knit to keep the body warm, and since athletic activity brought on healthy sweating, "sweater" clearly described its role. When a high roll collar was added, the "turtleneck," still a staple of sportswear, was born. The college environment was important because it allowed a looser, less rigid, more casual kind of clothing on campuses frequently isolated from the formality of fashionable urban attire. Soon after the introduction of these pieces of specific clothing for sports in collegiate settings, women borrowed them, wearing them for their own sports and leisurewear from the end of the nineteenth century and on.

Olympic Clothing

The modern Olympic Games introduced new generations of active sportswear. From the first meet in 1896, men appeared in very brief clothing to compete in track and field and swimming events: singlets, or tank tops, with above-the-knee shorts, and knit-sometimes fine wool and sometimes silk-skin-baring one-piece suits for swim competition. More surprising than these were the bikini-like liners that men wore under the sheer silk suits, without the tops, as typical practice garb. These items became the clothing for sport for men as the century progressed; even the briefs under the suits found their way into swimwear for men and women some half-century or so after their introduction.

Twentieth Century

Fabrics have played an important role in the development of active sportswear. As with sheer knits at the turn of the twentieth century, so too did stretch fabrics form a second skin shaving seconds off time in competition. From the introduction of Lastex in the 1930s to the spandex of the twenty-first century, clothing for active sports has reflected the attention to sleek bodies, to speed. Speedo, the Australian swimwear company, first introduced its one-piece stretchy suit in the 1950s. From that time on, swimwear became sleeker, tighter but more comfortable because of the manufactured stretch fibers. The concept proved irresistible for men and women in all active sports: new stretch textiles produced ski pants in the 1930s fashioned with stirrups to anchor the sleek lines, bicycle shorts in the 1970s, all-in-one cat suits for skiing, sledding, sailing, speed skating, even running in the 1980s and 1990s. With the biannual Olympic publicity, the new active suits, shorts, and tops found their way into active sportswear and onto athletic bodies everywhere. Even the nonathlete wanted the look, pressing fashion-wear manufacturers to adopt the tight-fitting yet comfortable clothing that technology had made possible.

New Definition of Sportswear

Championship golfer Anne Nason, 1913

Sportswear, as opposed to active sportswear, fulfills an entirely different role. Though their roots are the same, sportwear concerns the fashionable aspect of clothing for sport rather than the athletic. Individual items such as jerseys, sweaters, and turtlenecks came directly out of active sports. Certain jackets also became linked with sports and therefore sportswear. The most notable of these, still a staple of modern dress, is the blazer. This standard straight-cut lounge jacket of the late nineteenth century was adapted both by colleges and early sports clubs, the new tennis, golf, or country clubs that emerged in the 1870s and 1880s, who used their own club colors for these jackets, often fashioning them in stripes called "blazes." Hence, blazers. Striped blazers, popular through the 1920s, have had revivals since, most notably in the late 1950s and 1960s. Generally, however, they gave way to single-colored blazers in the 1930s. The best recognized of these is the bright green Masters jacket of golf.

For women's leisure wear (and it must be noted that women never wore this casual, "new" clothing in any other setting), women adopted men's clothing, as they had earlier. This had been noticeable in the 1890s with the clothes of the New Woman, with her blazer, shirt-waist, and easy skirt, or even, on occasion (though not as routinely as is now believed) with divided skirts for such activities as bicycling. By the turn of the twentieth century, young women wore jerseys, turtleneck sweaters, and cardigans, borrowed directly from their brothers. In addition, many chose to leave off their corsets when participating in active activities, opting instead for lighter, unboned "sporting waists." This last move was perhaps the most forward-thinking of all in affecting change in women's dress. Magazines of the day picked up the new "daring" fashions, with illustrations, to spread them across the country. Early movies, even those prior to the 1920s, also helped distribute and popularize the new styles, showing beautiful young women dressed for all sorts of activities: swimming, golf, tennis and, as time went on, simply for leisure. So the foundations had been laid in the nineteenth century, but the phenomenon of sportswear for women really began in the 1920s with the post-World War I emergence of mass production in women's wear.

The new loose, unfitted styles of the 1920s allowed a much freer approach to women's dress for play and leisure. Although women still clung to skirts, the dresses for such sports as golf and tennis were so admired (to say nothing of the sports figures who wore them, like Suzanne Lenglen, a French tennis champion, and later, Babe Didrickson) that they became day dresses for women whose lifestyles and pocketbooks allowed variety in their clothing. These golf and tennis dresses, with their pleated skirts and tailored tops, sometimes two-piece and sometimes one, comfortable and washable, became the prototypes for the most American of all clothing, the shirtwaist dress. So welcome were tennis dresses that in the 2000s they still prevail over shorts for competition tennis and, as early as the 1940s, offered a new, short skirt length that eventually became accepted into fashion wear.

Pants for Women

Trousers for women were another matter. The struggle for their acceptance was a long one, dating from the early nineteenth century when, as baggy "Turkish trowsers," they were introduced for water cures and exercise, then later adopted as dress reform. It was sport, however, that provided the reason for their acceptance, as long as they were kept within strictly sex-segregated environments like the emerging women's colleges or all-women gyms. The heavy serge bifurcated bloomers worn for the new game of basketball were the first acceptable pants for women, and worn with turtlenecked sweaters in the early part of the twentieth century, became an outfit for magazine pinups. The bloomers slimmed down by the 1920s, becoming the popular knickers of that decade, and the introduction of beach pajamas for leisurewear at the same time led to further acceptance, even if not worn in town settings.

Fannie Harley, originator of the "Bifurcated Harley" trousers for women, c. 1915

The movies helped to sell the image of women in trousers, especially in the 1930s with actresses like Katharine Hepburn and Marlene Dietrich. Even then, women did not wear pants for fashion wear. World War II changed their image, when trousers became the norm for factory workers, but still, pants were not acceptable for the average woman except when she was on vacation or in the country. Indeed, trousers were not accepted for professional working women until the end of the 1970s or early 1980s. But since that time, trousers have become the norm for women everywhere, professionals and vacationers alike, proving once again that women borrow their most comfortable clothing from men's wear.

Ready to Wear and Sportswear

Mass manufacturing made the simple items of ready-to-wear sportswear inexpensive and practical for everyone. The notion of designing separates to go together in coordinated fashion, a key concept of sportswear, began in New York in the mid-1920s when Berthe Holley introduced a line of separates that could be interchanged to suggest a larger wardrobe. The concept of easy separates for leisurewear in resort or casual surroundings, if not for more formal wear, grew in the 1930s and finally took hold for more general wear in the 1940s, during World War II. American designers such as Claire McCardell, Clare Potter, and Bonnie Cashin turned to designing ready-made American sportswear, using inexpensive fabrics and following the easy, comfortable styles that made it so popular in the United States. Companies such as B. H. Wragge in the 1940s marketed well-designed separates, particularly to the college-aged crowd, at inexpensive prices that they could afford. After the war, with manufacturing back to prewar norms and the introduction of the more formal New Look from France, the distinction between American and Parisian clothing became even more evident. American designers more and more turned to the casual expressions in fashion that American women loved. By midcentury, the great designers who captured the essence of American style, Bill Blass and Geoffrey Beene, had begun to be recognized, and were turning their attention to ready-to-wear sportswear. Eventually they even brought sportswear ideas into eveningwear, directly translating the shirts, sweaters, and skirts women were so attached to into elegance for evening. Finally, toward the later twentieth century, Ralph Lauren took what had become the staples of sportswear-jackets, sweaters, shirts, pants, and skirts-and gave them a distinctly upper-class edge by reviving the elegance of the club-based sports clothing of the 1930s and 1940s. These later twentieth-century designers captured the American Look and made it their own, turning the higher end of sportswear back to its origins by appealing to the upper classes. But by then, the style of dress known as sportswear was open to all, in all classes and levels of society, through mass manufacturing and mass marketing. A truly American style, sportwear has spread throughout the world, representing a first in clothing history.

See also Activewear; Blazer; Ralph Lauren; Sport Shirt; Sweater; Swimwear.

Bibliography

Armitage, John. Man at Play: Nine Centuries of Pleasure Making. London and New York: Frederick Warne and Co., 1977.

Mackay-Smith, Alexander, et al. Man and the Horse. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art and Simon and Schuster, 1984.

Milbank, Caroline Rennolds. New York Fashion: The Evolution of American Style. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1996.

Schreier, Barbara A. "Sporting Wear." In Men and Women: Dressing the Part. Edited by Claudia Brush Kidwell and Valerie Steele. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1989, pp. 102-103.

Warner, Patricia Campbell. "The Gym Suit: Freedom at Last." In Dress in American Culture. Edited by Patricia A. Cunningham and Susan Voso Lab. Bowling Green, Ohio: Popular Press, Bowling Green State University, 1992, pp. 140-179.